India’s first major civilization flourished nearly 5,000 years ago in the valley along the Indus River. A society known to possess a sophisticated lifestyle, aesthetics, and knowledge of town planning that holds true even today.
It existed at the same time as the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Sumer, but managed to out last them. It survived for nearly 1000 years before declining due to reasons still debated. THE INDUS VALLEY Modern India can trace its roots to the first Indian civilization in the Indus valley in about 2,600 BC.
It’s the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent, first identified in 1921 at Harappa in Punjab and then in 1922 at Mohenjo-daro, near the Indus River in Sindh—both of which are now in Pakistan. Indologists have concluded that the original inhabitants of this highly advanced civilization were of Dravidian descent.
By 5,500 the people of the Indus valley had invented pottery. It was a prosperous farming society and the farmers used bronze tools. The people of the valley spun cotton and traded with other cultures such as modern day Iraq. With time the people of the Indus Valley began to live in towns—two of the largest were at Mohenjo-daro and Harrapa. It was obviously advanced for its time, with planned cities, a standardized system of weights 
and bricks. By the standards of the ancient world, Mohenjo-daro had a large population of around 35-50,000.
and bricks. By the standards of the ancient world, Mohenjo-daro had a large population of around 35-50,000.It consisted of two parts. One part was a citadel, containing a public bath and assembly halls. It also held a granary where grain was stored. The lower part of the town had streets laid out in a grid pattern. The houses were up to 3 stories high and were made of brick. The bricks were of a standard size and the Indus Valley civilization also had standard weights and measures. The streets had networks of covered drains.
The Indus Valley civilization had a form of writing but till date the code hasn’t been cracked. As a result little is known of their political system or their religion. But a number of engraved seals and terracotta figurines give us some clues about what life must’ve been like. The Indus Valley civilization was at its peak during 2,300-1,700 BC, after which it declined.
The Indus Valley civilization had a form of writing but till date the code hasn’t been cracked. As a result little is known of their political system or their religion. But a number of engraved seals and terracotta figurines give us some clues about what life must’ve been like. The Indus Valley civilization was at its peak during 2,300-1,700 BC, after which it declined.
The reasons for the decline are not clear. While some scholars say tectonic upheavals caused a series of floods others attribute it to climatic change, as the area grew cooler and drier. It has also been suggested that rivers changed course. In those days less rainfall or a changed in the course of a river would have had severe consequences for farming and consequently on trade and commerce. Like all early civilizations the Indus Valley depended on farming.
The Indus Valley civilization vanished and it was forgotten until rediscovery in the 1920s.THE ARYANS After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization a new wave of people entered India. The Aryans came from central Asia and entered India through Afghanistan after 1500 BC. Their entry into the Indian sub-continent was probably through a series of invasions from the North over a period of time. The Aryans were a semi-nomadic race of pastoralists. By 1,000 BC they had learned to use iron.
The Indus Valley civilization vanished and it was forgotten until rediscovery in the 1920s.THE ARYANS After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization a new wave of people entered India. The Aryans came from central Asia and entered India through Afghanistan after 1500 BC. Their entry into the Indian sub-continent was probably through a series of invasions from the North over a period of time. The Aryans were a semi-nomadic race of pastoralists. By 1,000 BC they had learned to use iron.
However in time the Aryans settled down and became farmers.Slowly a more ordered and settled society evolved. Tribes went on to become kingdoms. The Aryans became the priests, rulers and warriors, free peasants and merchants. The subdued people became the slaves, laborers and artisans. In time this stratified society crystallized into the present day caste system.
RELIGIONS IN INDIA
The Hindu and Muslim religion also evolved at this time with the compilation of the Vedas—a treatise on their culture and religious beliefs. Initially the four Vedas were orally passed on from one generation to the other, but later they were written down for posterity. In time the Aryans learned to farm rice rather than crops like barley. By 600 BC rice cultivation was flourishing in India. With a more settled and ordered society trade and commerce also flourished. Life in towns evolved again and writing was re-invented. By 600 BC a highly civilized society had emerged in India.
The following period in the history of the sub-continent saw the birth of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. The founder of Jainism, Mahavira, also lived during this period. Christianity spread to India from Europe around the end of the 1100s. It is said that Saint Thomas arrived in India in 52 AD.
Historians believe Judaism reached Indian shores even earlier. While Zoroastrians landed in Gujarat around 7 AD. Guru Nanak laid the foundation of Sikhism in Punjab in the 15th century. And Islam was brought to India by Arab traders and later on by Muslim rulers.
THE EMPIRESAlexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire and penetrated the far North-west of India. But after Alexander’s death in 317 BC, the Greeks withdrew. A number of small and big kingdoms had begun to conquer one another, but it wasn’t until 322 BC that the first great empire arose.
THE EMPIRESAlexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire and penetrated the far North-west of India. But after Alexander’s death in 317 BC, the Greeks withdrew. A number of small and big kingdoms had begun to conquer one another, but it wasn’t until 322 BC that the first great empire arose.
In 322 BC, Chandragupta Maurya became king of the powerful state of Magadha in the North of India. Aided by his advisor Kautilya Chandragupta, he created an empir
e. After Alexander the Great died his empire had split up. Seleucos took the eastern part and attempted to reclaim the Indian provinces that were earlier ruled by Alexander. But his army was stopped by Chandragupta in 305 BC.
This new empire was rich and trade thrived. Its capital was one of the largest cities in the ancient world. In 296 BC Chandragupta abdicated in favor of his son Bindusara, who pushed the frontier of the empire further south.But the greatest Mauryan ruler was Ashoka or Asoka at around 4th century BC. He led the empire to take over almost all of what is now modern India.
e. After Alexander the Great died his empire had split up. Seleucos took the eastern part and attempted to reclaim the Indian provinces that were earlier ruled by Alexander. But his army was stopped by Chandragupta in 305 BC.This new empire was rich and trade thrived. Its capital was one of the largest cities in the ancient world. In 296 BC Chandragupta abdicated in favor of his son Bindusara, who pushed the frontier of the empire further south.But the greatest Mauryan ruler was Ashoka or Asoka at around 4th century BC. He led the empire to take over almost all of what is now modern India.
He conquered Kalinga (modern day Orissa). But after the battle of Kalinga, he embraced Buddhism, appalled by the suffering caused by war and decided against any further conquest. But despite his conversion to Buddhism, Mauryan rule was authoritarian and punishments for wrongdoers were severe.Asoka decreed the Buddhist principles of right conduct should be engraved in stone pillars or on rocks throughout his kingdom to teach the people how to live—monuments like the ones in Sanchi.
The Ashoka pillar at Sarnath is India’s national emblem while the Dharma Chakra on the pillar adorns the country’s national flag. After his death, the Mauryan Empire suffered an economic decline and political instability.
After Alexander’s death his empire was split between his generals. The various successor states fought each other until a strong state emerged in Bactria (roughly modern Afghanistan). The Greek rulers of Bactria attempted to control Northwest India. About 185 BC King Demetrius invaded India. About 160 BC one of his successors, King Menander conquered most of northern India. But after the death of Menander this empire broke up into separate states and Indian civilization developed without European influence. India now faced a new invader. Nomads from Central Asia conquered Bactria in about 120 BC. One of the tribes, the Kushanas turned their attention to Northern India and went on to gradually conquer territories in India, with successive kings carved out a bigger and bigger empire in Northern India.
After Alexander’s death his empire was split between his generals. The various successor states fought each other until a strong state emerged in Bactria (roughly modern Afghanistan). The Greek rulers of Bactria attempted to control Northwest India. About 185 BC King Demetrius invaded India. About 160 BC one of his successors, King Menander conquered most of northern India. But after the death of Menander this empire broke up into separate states and Indian civilization developed without European influence. India now faced a new invader. Nomads from Central Asia conquered Bactria in about 120 BC. One of the tribes, the Kushanas turned their attention to Northern India and went on to gradually conquer territories in India, with successive kings carved out a bigger and bigger empire in Northern India.
The Kushan Empire reached its peak under King Kanishka. During his reign Northern India was prosperous and did much trade with the Roman Empire. After his death the empire declined and broke up. By the early 3rd century AD India was once again split into small states.A new empire was founded early in the 4th century AD by Chandragupta. After his death in 335 AD his son Samudragupta (335-375) conquered the whole of Northern India and much of Central India.
India once again became prosperous and stable. Trade flourished with China and other kingdoms in Asia. Mathematics, astronomy, medicine and literature flourished. The Gupta Empire reached a peak under Chandragupta II 375-415 AD, after which it went into decline.
The Gupta Empire finally broke up in the early 6th century.The next great ruler in Indian history was king Harshavardhana (606-647). He created an empire to rival the Guptas. But in 630, when he attempted to conquer Southern India he was routed by a king called Pulakesin (610-643). Despite this setback, Harsha remained a powerful ruler. But after his death the empire quickly broke up. India once again became a land of several kingdoms, which were frequently at war with each other. The three most important dynasties were the Rajputs, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. However, in the 9th century a new empire arose in Southern India - the Cholas.In the late 10th century the Chola king Rajaraja-I began to expand his kingdom. He conquered the neighboring kingdoms of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
The next king, Rajenda I took more territory, including the Ganges and the Andaman Islands. The Chola was a prosperous empire and trade with Southeast Asia and the Arabs thrived.
In the 10th century Turks from central Asia conquered Afghanistan. Under their ruler Mahmud 971-1030, they conquered Punjab. He led raids deep into India and plundered temples. The Turks were able to conquer large parts of Northern India and they created a powerful state - the Delhi Sultanate. Under the Sultan Qutubuddin and Iltumish, the Sultanate flourished.
Iltumish was succeeded by his daughter Raziya. She reigned for only 3 years before she was murdered. But the Sultanate of Delhi declined rapidly in the late 14th century. The final blow came in 1498 when Timurlane, a descendent of Genghis Khan sacked Delhi and massacred most of the inhabitants. At around the same time, another empire arose in the South - the Vijayangar. The Vijayanagar Empire is named after its capital city. The rulers of Vijayanager gradually consolidated their empire, reaching a peak in the 16th century. By then a new empire had arisen - the Mughals.
THE RISE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a descendant of Changez Khan. From 1504 he was ruler of part of what is now Afghanistan. From the Turks he had learned to use cannons. Guns helped him defeat the Indian kings who were still using traditional methods of warfare. Babur first raided India in 1517 and in 1525 he invaded. In 1526 Babur crushed the army of Ibrahim Lodi 
at the battle of Panipat. Other Indian rulers now united against Babur but they were crushed at the battle of Khanau in 1527.
at the battle of Panipat. Other Indian rulers now united against Babur but they were crushed at the battle of Khanau in 1527. He was succeeded by his son Humayan 1508-1556. Humayan’s son Akbar is widely regarded as the greatest Mughal ruler. Akbar also reorganized the government and he created an efficient civil service. Akbar was a Muslim but he was tolerant in matters of religion. He abolished a tax previous rulers had levied on non-Muslims. Persian literature flourished in India during his reign.
Persian and Hindu styles of painting merged to form a new style of Mughal painting.
Akbar
was succeeded by his son Jahangir. Under him Mughal influence in the South of India increased and the empire flourished. The Mughal Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century its only weakness being powers struggles among the ruling family and occasional rebellions.
Akbar
was succeeded by his son Jahangir. Under him Mughal influence in the South of India increased and the empire flourished. The Mughal Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century its only weakness being powers struggles among the ruling family and occasional rebellions.Shah Jahan became ruler in 1627. Under him the empire prospered. He is famous for building the Taj Mahal, erected as a memorial to his queen Mumatz Mahal. Work began on it in 1631 and it took craftsmen and laborers 22 years to build it, completing the edifice to love in 1653.The next ruler Aurangzeb greatly expanded the empire. Under him the empire became so vast it was difficult for one man to rule. But unlike his predecessors, he was not religiously tolerant. In 1664 he banned the repair of Hindu temples and in 1669 he banned his subjects from building new ones. Also, in 1679 he reintroduced a poll tax on Hindus.
Aurangzeb was succeeded by his son Bahadur Shah Zafar, who died in 1712. He was the last Mughal emperor. By this time cracks were appearing in the empire. After 1712 powerful nobles in the empire began to break away and form virtually independent states.
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN INDIA
The decline of the Mughal Empire caused a vacuum, which the Europeans were quick to capitalize on. The first Europeans to reach India by sea were the Portuguese who arrived
in 1498. They formed a base at Goa in 1510. However in the 17th century the Portuguese declined and the English and Dutch took their place.
The English East India Company was formed in 1600 to trade with India. In 1639 the English established a trading base in India in what is now Chennai. In 1662 the English king married a Portuguese princess and he was given Bombay. In 1668 it was sold to the East India Company. In 1690 the English established a base in Bengal, which grew into Calcutta. In the late 17th century the Dutch also declined and the French replaced them.
In 1673 the French established a base at Pondicherry.In the 18th century there was bitter rivalry between the French and the English, and they both began to interfere in Indian politics.
The Seven Years war between Britain and France began in 1756. With the outbreak of war the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula captured the British base at Calcutta.
The Seven Years war between Britain and France began in 1756. With the outbreak of war the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula captured the British base at Calcutta.
The East India Company sent a force led by Robert Clive and recaptured Calcutta. Soon he took over the whole of Bengal and the company began to rule Bengal directly. Clive's victory ensured that India would eventually become a British colony not a French one. However the Company did not take over India straight away. It was a gradual process, which took several decades. The East India Company eliminated French influence in India and began to subdue other Indian states.
The British started taking over more and more territory and Indian states were forced to accept British 'protection'. The state of Hyderabad made a treaty with the British in 1798 and retained some independence but other states were forced to accept British rule.In 1803, the British took Agra and Delhi. At that time Delhi was still ruled by the last Mughal emperor.
The British started taking over more and more territory and Indian states were forced to accept British 'protection'. The state of Hyderabad made a treaty with the British in 1798 and retained some independence but other states were forced to accept British rule.In 1803, the British took Agra and Delhi. At that time Delhi was still ruled by the last Mughal emperor.
By 1819 the East India Company was in control of most of India except the North West.With the British rule came some cultural changes in India. In 1829 the custom of “Sati”, where widows threw themselves onto their husbands’ funeral pyre, was abolished. In 1835 English was made the official language.THE MUTINY OF 1857 The East India Company had long employed Indians as soldiers. There were supposed to be not more than 4 Indian soldiers to every British one.
However the British had withdrawn troops to serve in conflicts elsewhere. By 1857 there were only 40,000 British troops in India and 311,000 Indians. The mutiny began on May 10, 1857. It was sparked by the fact that soldiers were issued a new rifle - the Enfield. It was said the cartridge was greased with fat from cows, that’s sacred to Hindus, and pigs that’s considered unclean by Muslims.
Meerut was the starting point of the mutiny against the British and the uprising spread rapidly. The rebels took Delhi and proclaimed the restoration of the old Mughal Empire. The rebellion spread across Central and Northern India but the south did not rise. Soldiers in Madras and Bombay stayed loyal to the British. Eventually the British were able to re-establish control. By the end of 1858 the rebellion was over, but the East India Company had lost control of India. On September 1, 1858 control was transferred to the British government. THE DAWN OF NEW INDIA
Despite of the fact that the Mutiny was crushed, the desire for independence did not die. The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. The Muslim League was founded in 1906.In 1861 legislative bodies was formed for India. However the members were not elected. They were appointed by the governor-general or by provincial governors. Most of their members were British. After the mutiny the ratio of British soldiers to Indians was increased.
In 1877 Queen Victoria was made Empress of India.In the late 19th century the British created a network of railways in India. The first train made in India was built in Bombay in 1865. Improved communications meant the different parts of India were bought closer together. In the late 19th century a number of newspapers were founded, which went to play a major role in mobilizing public opinion.
In 1905 the British divided Bengal, in line with their divide and rule policy. This move provoked unrest in Bengal. People demonstrated and boycotted British goods.
In the late 19th century India was an agricultural society. Jute, raw cotton and tea and coffee were exported to Britain. In return textiles and other manufactured goods were imported from there. But in the early 20th century Indian industries began to develop. At the same time Britain was in decline. In the mid-19th century Britain was the most powerful country in the world but by the end of the century other powers such as Germany and the USA had caught up.
Britain was weakened by the first world and continued to decline in the 1920s and 1930s. But the one incident that had a big role in rallying Indian public opinion against the British was the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre in 1919. General Reginald Dyer had ordered his men to open fire on the unarmed crowd, killing around 350 people. At this point the struggle for independence got a shot in the arm by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who went to be one of the pivotal figures of the struggle till his death in 1948. A lawyer by profession, he left South Africa and returned to India in 1915. In 1920 he launched a non-co-operation campaign against the British. This included boycotting British textiles and their schools. In 1930 he began a campaign to end the government’s monopoly of salt production. He led a march to the sea to collect salt. It was called the Dandi March. The British arrested Gandhi and tens of thousands of others. But in 1931, they released Gandhi and allowed people to make salt for their personal use. In 1931 the capital of India was moved from Calcutta to New Delhi.
By 1935 the British realized that Indian independence was inevitable, sooner or later. The very same year they granted a new constitution, but it came in effect two years later. But the British continued to retain control of the central government.
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE
By 1940, the British policy of divide and rule had led to the demand of a separate state made up of areas where Muslims were the majority. Around the same time, the quit India movement also gathered momentum. The British responded by imprisoning National Congress leaders and other freedom fighters.In 1946 the Viceroy appointed an interim cabinet with Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister. But by then the leader of Muslim League, M A Jinnah had declared a 'day of action' on 16 August 1946.
By 1940, the British policy of divide and rule had led to the demand of a separate state made up of areas where Muslims were the majority. Around the same time, the quit India movement also gathered momentum. The British responded by imprisoning National Congress leaders and other freedom fighters.In 1946 the Viceroy appointed an interim cabinet with Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister. But by then the leader of Muslim League, M A Jinnah had declared a 'day of action' on 16 August 1946.
The declaration led to unprecedented violence between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. Soon after, Viceroy Mountbatten agreed to the formation of Pakistan and Bangladesh. India became independent on 15th August 1947.
But violence broke out in areas having mixed populations of Muslims and Hindus. Almost half a million people died in the ensuing violence. In 1950, the new constitution came into force and India became a secular state. Prime minister Nehru made the economy a 'mixed economy' of some state owned industry and some private enterprise. The struggle for independence was a long and arduous one. Scores of lives were lost to free the country. After independence, India has consolidated its place as the largest democracy in the world with a thriving economy and a robust political domain.